Time and event structure
Tense relates a situation to a reference point; aspect describes how it is viewed. A perfect can connect a prior event to a present state, but the exact value of a named form changes across languages and periods. Translate a form from its attested use and surrounding discourse rather than a one-word label in a paradigm.
Information structure
Topic is what an utterance is about; focus highlights material that answers a question or contrasts alternatives. Position, particles, prosody and special constructions may mark them. In a historical corpus, avoid claiming intonation unless independent evidence survives.
Evidence source
Some languages grammatically mark whether a statement is known by sight, report or inference. WALS calls this evidentiality. An English phrase like “apparently” can translate one use, but it does not mean the English adverb has the same grammatical status. Keep semantic interpretation and morphological form separate.
Modern-language examples on this page clarify a linguistic pattern. They do not establish unattested sounds or forms for an ancient language. Follow the cited sources below and keep editorial readings separate from the surviving trace.